Key Terms_ Chapter 9 to 13

Heredity (inheritance) - transmission of traits from one generation to next

Genetics - the scientific study of heredity

Clone - a group of genetically identical individuals

Gametes - reproductive cells

Somatic cells - any cell other than those involved in gamete formation

Karyotype - display of paired chromosomes (map of chromosomes)

Sex chromosomes - x and y, determine the sex

Autosomes - other chromosomes

Diploid cell - any cell with two chromosome sets (2n)

Haploid cell - any cell with a single chromosome set (n)

Autotrophs – self feeders

Heterotrophs – obtain their organic material by the second major mode of nutrition, unable to make their own food

Chlorophyll – the green pigment within chloroplasts

Mesophyll – the tissue in the interior of the leaf

Stroma – the dense fluid within the chloroplasts

Thylakoids – interconnected membranous sacs

Grana – thylakoid coumn

Photophosphorylation – adition of a phosphate group to ADP

Carbon fixation – initial incorporation of carbon into organic compounds

Wavelength – the distance between the crest of electromagnetic waves

Aerobic respiration – the most relevant and efficient catabolic pathway

Anaerobic – no O₂

Cellular respiration – both aerobic and anaerobic processes

Oxidation – loss of electrons and energy

Oxidizing agent – the electron acceptor

Reduction – gain of electrons and energy

Reducing agent – the electron donor

NAD+ - electron carrier/acceptor, oxidizing agent in glycolisis

Chemiosmosis – energy-coupling mechanism

Fermentation – a way of harvesting chemical energy without using either oxygen or any ETC.

Meiosis and Sexual Life Cycles_Chapter 13

1. How does meiosis differ to mitosis?

2. Differences between asexual and sexual reproduction.

3. What are the sexual sources of genetic variations?

1. Meiosis produces cells there differ genetically from their parent cells. Mitosis produces daughter cells that are genetically identical to their parent cell.

Synapsis and crossing over just occur in meiosis, meiosis 1.

At metaphase 1, chromosomes are positioned on the metaphase as pairs of homologs, rather than individual chromosomes, as in metaphase of mitosis.

At anaphase 1 of meiosis, the replicated chromosomes of each homologous pair move toward opposite poles, but the sister chromatids remain attached. In anaphase of mitosis, by contrast, sister chromatids separate.

2. Individuals reproducing asexually transmit %100 of their genes to their progeny, whereas individuals reproducing sexually transmit %50.

Single parent/two parents. Asexual reproduction requires only mitosis, but sexual reproduction is involved by meiosis.

3.Independent assortment = The random distribution of maternal and paternal homologues to the gametes. Crossing over is another mechanism that increases genetic variation is the process of crossing over, during which homologous chromosomes exchange genes. Random fertilization is another source of genetic variation in offspring.

Video on crossing over: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=op7Z1Px8oO4&feature=related

5 main facts on this chapter :

. Normal human somatic cells are diploid. They have 46 chromosomes made up of two sets of 23.

. 22 homologous pairs of autosomes, each with maternal and paternal homolog. The 23rd pair is the sex chromosome, determines the sex of the person.

. Three events in sexual reproduction contribute to genetic variation in a population..

. Independent assortment happens in meiosis, crossing over during meiosis I, and random fertilization of egg cells by sperm.

. Meiosis I separates homologous chromosomes, while meiosis II separates sister chromatids.

In this chapter, we learnt about meiosis, its different stages, and differences between meiosis and mitosis. We studied origins of genetic variation among offsprings.

The Cell Cycle_Chapter 12

1. How does the interphase work?

2. What are the phases of Mitotic division?

3. Explain the cell cycle control system?

1. Interphase: Interphase is the period in the cell cycle when the cell is not dividing. During interphase, cellular metabolic activity is high, chromosomes and organelles are duplicated, and cell size is may increase. Interphase accounts for $90 of the cell cycle. It has three parts. G1,S, and G2. In G1 part, cell grows. In S part, DNA is synthesized, and chromosomes are replicated. In G2 part, cell is prepared for division.

2. After Interphase, the phases are: Prophase, Prometaphase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase and Cytokinesis.

Video on this mitotic cell division:

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vh8JAN8vDeA&feature=fvw

http://nobelprize.org/educational_games/medicine/2001/cellcycle.html

3. The cell cycle has interacting proteins that act as stop and go signals at specific points during the cycle. There are two major CHECKPOINTS. One is just before the cell enters the S phase, and the other is before entering Mitosis. If a cell is too small, or starved, or the environment cannot provide the proteins and energy necessary for the division, control proteins will delay the cell's attempt to duplicate itself. (Gzero) G1 checkpoint. p53 prevents cells with damaged DNA from proceeding to the S phase of the cell cycle. The cell can then attempt to repair the DNA and if succesful, go on to S phase. G2 checkpoint provides a safety gap before the cell plunges into Mitosis. The cell ensures that DNA replication is complete. The G2 checkpoint is similar to the G1 checkpoint in that it is a timing point at the end of g2 where STOP proteins can prevent mitosis until the cell has completed all the required steps for division.

5 main facts about the cell cycle:

. Prophase : In early prophase, the centrosomes move toward opposite poles of the cell, organizing the spindle microtubules between them. The sister chromatids become visible in the nucleus as they condense.

. The chromatids remain lined up between the poles of the cell during metaphase.

. Anaphase begins when the pairs of sister chromatids separate. The separated chromatids are now called chromosomes, and move towards the poles of the cell.

. The chromosomes arrive at the pole and the new nuclear membranes form around them in telophase.

. Division of the cytoplasmic components is called cytokinesis. The parent cell divides into two.

Cell cycle occurs in order to reproduce, grow, and repair the cell. The goal if the cell division is to split the sister chromatids and give one to each new cells. Regulation of cell division must be controlled by checkpoints. If the control system fails, the cancer cells occur. They do not stop dividing.

Cell Communication_Chapter 11

1. The three stages of the cell communication?

2. What are the roles of protein kinases and phosphorylation in signal amplification?

3. What are the membrane receptors?

1. a) Reception : this is the first stage. outside of the cell to inside of the cell. receptor is in the membrane, taking in the signal molecules. the signal molecules are mostly water soluble. they are too large to travel thru membranes, they so uses receptors to get in the cell. receptor molecules are made of protein. they are flexible, depending on the signal molecule.

b) Signal Transduction : when the signal molecule moves to cytoplasm from the receptor. there is phosphorylation during this pathway. uses protein kinases which are enzymes that transfers phosphate groups from ATP to a protein.

c) Response : the signals coming from cytoplasm go to the nucleus. proteins turn specific genes on and off.

2. Protein kinases and phosphorylation in signal amplification :

A protein kinase is a kinase enzyme that modifies other proteins by chemically addingphosphate groups to them (phosphorylation). Phosphorylation usually results in a functional change of the target protein (substrate) by changing enzyme activity, cellular location, or association with other proteins. Up to 30% of all human proteins may be modified by kinase activity, and kinases are known to regulate the majority of cellular pathways, especially those involved in signal transduction.Tyrosine-specific protein kinases phosphorylate tyrosine amino acid residues, and like serine/threonine-specific kinases are used in signal transduction.

3. There are three membrane receptors. G Protein -Coupled Receptors, Receptor Tyrosine Kinases, and Ion Channel Receptors. These are located in the plasma membrane.

Video on cell communication :

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=U6uHotlXvPo

Some facts about cell communication/signaling :

. Many signal transduction pathways include phosphorylation cascades, in which a series of protein kinases each add a phosphate group to the next one in line, activating it.

. Apoptosis, is a type of programmed cell death.

. Intracellular signals are the proteins in the nucleus or in the cytoplasm that can pass thru the membrane without the help of a receptors. ex. hormones.

. Reception may occur by direct contact, or by indirect contact.

. Two results, cytoplasmic regulation, or transcription regulation in the nucleus.

This chapter is about cell communication/ signaling. Cells communicate in order to respond to the environment, and to regulate themselves. Cells need to control cellular processes by signaling. There are three stages and each stage has its own work, and helpers such as enzymes, receptors, signals etc. There are two types of cellular responses, cytoplasmic regulation, and transcription regulation in the nucleus. It can cause a rearrangement of the cytoskeleton, or activation of new protein synthesis.

Photosynthesis_Chapter 10

1.Explain a possible reason why photorespiration still exists.

A metabolic pathway that consumes oxygen and atp. Releases co2, and decreases photosynthetic output. It generally occurs on hot, dry, bright days, when stomata close and the oxygen concentration in the leaf exceeds that of co2. It occurs in the light and consumes o2, while producing co2. C3 plants do.

2. The two reactions of photosynthesis.

Light reaction : It is an noncyclic reaction, and also anabolic reaction. It requires light energy, and used in both photosynthesis 1 and 2. It converts solar energy into chemical energy. The light energy comes to the grana of the chloroplast and the energy is transferred from light to chemicals. The water is broken down into H2 and O2

Location : grana of the chloroplast

Reactants : Light, water, ADP and Pi and NADP+

Products : Oxygen, ATP and NADPH, and H+ pumps out of the membrane to create a concentration gradients.

Dark reaction : Food production. (sugar)Happens in the stroma of the chloroplast. The enzyme Rubisco !! the most important enzyme in the earth.without it, no photosynthesis, no plants, no oxygen.phosphoglycerate is another enzyme.

Products ; sugar and ADP and NADP+

Requierements : CO2 ATP NADPH

3. What are the accessory pigments?

Accessory pigments ; absorb light ebergy and transfer it to sholorophyll. Carotene the orange color, xanthopyll is the yellow color.Green light doesn’t work because the green pigments on the plant reflect the green light.!

Video on photosynthesis:

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hj_WKgnL6MI&feature=related

5 main facts about photosynthesis.

. Photosynthesis equation is 6 CO_2(g) + 6 H₂O_(l) + photons → C₆H₁₂O_6(aq) + 6 O_2(g)

. Photosynthesis can be affected and changed by light intensity, carbon dioxide concentration, the temperature, the measure of water etc..

. Photosynthesis is a redox reaction like cellular respiration. Hydrogens are added to carbons.

. Chlorophyll is a ps pigment which locates in the chloroplast. A typical plant cell contains 10 to 100 chloroplasts.

. Rubisco is the enzyme that captures CO2 in the light and the dark reaction, it's located in the bundle sheath.

From this chapter, we learnt the main equation of ps, light and dark reactions, alternate ps forms like c3, c4, and cam plants do.

Cellular Respiration_Chapter 9

1. What are the redox, oxidation, and reduction reactions?

2. What are the 3 steps of respiration?

3. What is a fermentation?

1. The cell devises the energy stored in food molecules through redox reaction, in which one substance partially or totally shifts electrons to another. The substance receiving electrons is reduced, the substance losing electrons is oxidized. During cellular respiration, glucose is oxidized, and oxygen is reduced to water.

C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6O₂ → 6CO₂ + 6H₂O + Energy (as ATP)

2. The three steps are : Glycolysis, The Citric Acid Cycle, and Oxidative Phosphorylation.

3. All cells are able to synthesize ATP via the process of glycolysis. In many cells, if oxygen is not present, pyruvate is metabolized in a process called fermentation. Fermentation complements glycolysis and makes it possible for ATP to be continually produced in the absence of oxygen. By oxidizing the NADH produced in glycolysis, fermentation regenerates NAD+, which can take part in glycolysis once again to produce more ATP.

5 main facts about this chapter.

. With cellular respiration, the energy is released from the chemical bonds into the complex organic molecules.

. Glycolysis splits glucose and produce NADH and ATP, location is cytoplasm.

. Krebs cycle oxidizes pyruvic acid to CO2, produces NADH and FADH2, location is mitochondria matrix.

. Electron Transport Chain converts NADH and FADH2 into ATP, location is mitochondria cristae.

. Electron carrier compounds are the molecules that transport or shuttle electrons within the cell.

Video about cellular respiration :

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iXmw3fR8fh0

In this chapter, we learn about cellular respiration, its function, its requirements, and products. We learnt about the redox reaction, the three steps of the respiration, and the fermentation. Glycolysis and the citric acid cycle supply electrons to the electron transport chain, which drives oxidative phosphorylation. Oxidative phosphorylation generates ATP.

Key Terms_ Chapter 1 to 8

Chapter 1 :

biology = ongoing inquiry about the nature of life

evolution = the process of change that has transformed life on Earth from its earliest beginnings to the diversity of organisms living today

reductionism = the reduction of complex systems to simpler components that are more managable to study

cell = organism's basic units of structure and function

system = a simply combination of components that function together

gene = a discrete unit of hereditary information consisting of a specific nucleotide sequence in DNA/RNA (in some viruses)

DNA = deoxyribonucleic acid

genome = the entire "library" of genetic instructions that an organism inherits

inquiry = a search for information and explanation

hypothesis = tentative answer to a well framed question

Chapter 2 :

matter = anything that takes up space and has a mass

element = substance that cannot be broken down to any other substance by any chemical reactions

compound = substance consisting in two or more different elements combined in a fixed ratio

atom = the smallest unit of matter that still retains the properties of an element

dalton = atomic mass unit

atomic number = number of protons, subscript to the left of the symbol

mass number = sum of the protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom, superscript to the left of the symbol

energy = capacity to cause change, especially to do work

orbital = 3D space where electron is found 90% of the time

valence = bonding capacity, usually equals to number of unpaired electrons

Chapter 3 :

polar molecule = molecule whose two ends have opposite charges

cohesion = the binding together of like molecules, often by hydrogen bond

adhesion = the clinging of one substance to another

kinetic energy = energy of motion

heat = form of energy

temperature = a measure of heat intensity (average kinetic energy of the molecules)

vaporization (evaporation) = transformation from liquid to gas

heat of vaporization = the quantity of heat a liquid must absorb for 1 g to be converted from the liquid to the gaseous state

solution = a liquid that is completely homogeneous mixture of two or more substances

solvent = dissolving agent of a solution

solute = substance that is dissolved

acid = a substance that increases the hydrogen ion concentration of a solution

base = a substance that reduces the hydrogen ion concentration of a solution

Chapter 4 :

Organic Chemistry = branch of chemistry that specializes in the study of carbon compounds

Vitalism = the belief in a life force outside the jurisdiction of physical and chemical laws

Mechanism = the view that physical and chemical laws govern all natural phenomena, including the process of life

Tetravalence = ability of the molecule to branch off in as many as four directions

Hydrocarbons = Organic molecules made of only carbon and hydrogen

Isomers = Compounds with the same molecular formula but have different structures

Enantiomers = molecules that are mirror images of each other.

Functional groups = A group of atoms attached to a carbon skeleton

ATP = adenosine triphosphate, an important source of energy

ADP = adenosine diphosphate, product of losing one phosphate from ATP

Chapter 5 :

Macromolecules (polymers) = Large molecules formed by joining many subunits together

Polymer = molecule that consists of a single unit (monomer) repeated many times

Monomer = A building block of a polymer

Dehydration/ Condensation synthesis = the chemical reaction that joins monomers into polymers. Covalent bonds are formed by the removal of a water molecule between the monomers

Hydrolisis = Reverse of

condensation synthesis. Breaks polymers into monomers by adding water.

Polypeptide = polymers of amino acids

Proteins = polypeptide chains of Amino Acids linked by peptide bonds

Fatty acid = a long carbon chain (12-18 C) with a -COOH (acid) on one end and a -CH₃ (fat) at the other.

Denaturation = pH shifts, high salt concentrations, heat

Nucleotide = monomer

Chapter 6 :

cell = basic functional unit of all living things

lipid bilayer = double phospholipid membrane --> outer hydrophilic heads and hydrophobic tails pointing towards inside

organelles = bodies within the cytoplasm that serve to physically separate the various metabolic reactions that occur within the cells

nucleus = brain of the cell

ribosome = consisting of RNA

endoplasmic reticulum = stacks of flattened sacs involved in the production of various materials

golgi apparatus = group of flattened sacs arranged like a stack of bowls, functioning to modify and package proteins and lipids into vesicles

lyzosomes = vesicles from a golgi apparatus that contain digestive enzymes

mitochondria = organelles that carry out aerobic respiration

chloroplasts = organelles that carry out photosynthesis

flagella and cilia = structures that protrude from the cell membrane and make wavelike movements

Chapter 7 :

Integral proteins = transmembrane protein with hydrophobic regions that extend into and often completely span the hydrophobic interior of the membrane and with hydrophilic regions in contact with the aqueous solution on either side of the membrane

Peripheral proteins = proteins loosely bounded to the surface of a membrane or to part of an integral protein and not embedded in the lipid bilayer

Glycolipids = molecules formed of membrane carbohydrates covalently bonded to lipids

Glycoproteins = membrane carbohydrates + proteins

Aquaporins = channel proteins (facilitate the passage of water molecules through the membrane)

Diffusion = the movement of molecules of any substance so they spread out evenly into the available space (passive transport)

Osmosis = the diffusion of water

Facilitated diffusion = the spontaneous passage of molecules or ions across a membrane with the assistance of specific transmembrane transport proteins

Passive transport = no energy required / invested

Active transport = energy required

Chapter 8 :

Metabolism = the totality of an organism’s chemical reactions

Energy = the ability to do work

Kinetic energy = energy of motion / action

Potential energy = tored energy or capacity to do work

Energy of activation = Energy needed to convert potential energy into kinetic energy

Entropy = measure of disorder

Free energy = portion of a system’s energy that can perform work when temperature and pressure are uniform throughout the system, as in a living cell

Exergonic reaction = release of free energy

Endergonic reaction = absorbs free energy

Energy coupling = a key feature in the way cells manage their energy resources to do work (chemical, transport, mechanical)

Phosphorylated = the recipient of the phosphate group